Interviewing Techniques in Safety Investigation
Expert-defined terms from the Graduate Certificate in Aviation Safety Investigation course at London School of Business and Administration. Free to read, free to share, paired with a professional course.
Abrupt Questioning – A technique where the interviewer poses short, direc… #
Related terms: Closed‑ended questioning, Rapid‑fire probing. Explanation: The interviewer limits the respondent’s opportunity to elaborate, forcing a focus on factual data. Example: “What was the exact time of the engine shutdown?”
Practical application #
Useful when time is limited or when confirming specific data points in an accident timeline. Challenges: May cause interviewee discomfort, reduce rapport, and risk missing contextual information.
Active Listening – The practice of fully concentrating, understanding, re… #
Related terms: Reflective listening, Empathic listening. Explanation: Involves paraphrasing, nodding, and asking clarifying questions to demonstrate engagement. Example: Interviewer repeats, “So you observed a sudden loss of thrust at 02:14 UTC?”
Practical application #
Builds trust, encourages openness, and helps verify details. Challenges: Requires discipline to avoid interrupting, and may be difficult when multiple interviewees speak simultaneously.
Anchor Question – An opening question that sets the tone and scope for th… #
Related terms: Opening question, Baseline query. Explanation: Provides a reference point for later probing and helps gauge the interviewee’s initial perception. Example: “Can you describe the events leading up to the runway excursion?”
Practical application #
Establishes a narrative framework for subsequent detailed questioning. Challenges: If too vague, the interview may drift; if too specific, it may bias responses.
Behavioural Interviewing – A method that asks interviewees to recount pas… #
Related terms: STAR technique, Situation‑Task‑Action‑Result. Explanation: Focuses on concrete examples rather than opinions, reducing speculation. Example: “Tell me about a time when you noticed an abnormal instrument reading and how you responded.”
Practical application #
Helps investigators assess decision‑making processes under stress. Challenges: Requires interviewees to recall precise details, which may be limited by memory decay.
Closed‑Ended Question – A question that can be answered with a single wor… #
Related terms: Abrupt questioning, Binary query. Explanation: Used to confirm facts or gather precise data points quickly. Example: “Did the cockpit voice recorder capture the alarm?”
Practical application #
Efficient for validating technical information. Challenges: Overuse can limit depth, discourage elaboration, and may miss contextual cues.
Contextual Probing – A line of questioning that explores the environment,… #
Related terms: Situational probing, Environmental inquiry. Explanation: Seeks to uncover factors such as weather, workload, and procedural adherence that influence safety outcomes. Example: “What were the weather conditions when the aircraft entered the approach phase?”
Practical application #
Provides a holistic view of contributing factors. Challenges: Requires the interviewer to have a broad knowledge base and to avoid leading the interviewee.
Cognitive Interviewing – A technique originally developed for eyewitness… #
Related terms: Memory‑enhancement interview, Retrieval cueing. Explanation: Utilises mental reinstatement of context, varied recall order, and focused prompts to improve accuracy. Example: “Close your eyes and picture the cockpit layout at the time of the anomaly.”
Practical application #
Increases the completeness of technical recollections from pilots and crew. Challenges: Time‑consuming, may cause fatigue, and requires interviewer training to avoid suggestibility.
Cross‑Examination – A systematic questioning approach that juxtaposes sta… #
Related terms: Contradiction probing, Comparative analysis. Explanation: The investigator asks targeted questions that compare the interviewee’s account with other evidence. Example: “Your logbook notes a fuel imbalance at 03:12, Yet the ATC transcript shows no change in altitude. Can you explain?”
Practical application #
Helps reconcile divergent narratives and pinpoint factual errors. Challenges: Can be perceived as confrontational, potentially eroding rapport if not handled diplomatically.
Dialectic Interviewing – A dialogic method that encourages the interviewe… #
Related terms: Socratic questioning, Reflective dialogue. Explanation: The interviewer asks a series of probing questions that lead the interviewee to self‑correction. Example: “You mentioned the autopilot disengaged automatically; what evidence supports that observation?”
Practical application #
Useful for uncovering hidden assumptions and biases. Challenges: Requires skilled facilitation to avoid intimidation and to keep the conversation productive.
Empathic Framing – The use of language that acknowledges the interviewee’… #
Related terms: Emotional intelligence, Rapport building. Explanation: Phrases such as “I understand this was a stressful situation” signal respect and can lower defensive barriers. Example: “Given the pressure you were under, can you walk me through what you saw?”
Practical application #
Encourages candid sharing, especially from personnel who may feel culpable. Challenges: Over‑emphasis may appear patronising; balance is essential.
Evidence‑Based Questioning – Formulating questions that directly referenc… #
Related terms: Document‑driven interview, Fact‑linked probing. Explanation: Aligns the interview with tangible evidence, reducing speculation. Example: “The flight data recorder shows a rapid descent at 02:45; What actions did you take at that moment?”
Practical application #
Enhances credibility of the interview and helps verify data integrity. Challenges: Requires that the investigator have timely access to the evidence and may limit flexibility.
Follow‑Up Question – A secondary question that delves deeper into a previ… #
Related terms: Probing question, Clarification query. Explanation: Builds on the interviewee’s answer, ensuring completeness. Example: After an answer about a warning light, the interviewer asks, “Did the warning illuminate continuously or blink intermittently?”
Practical application #
Useful for extracting nuances and preventing gaps. Challenges: Over‑probing can become repetitive; the interviewer must gauge when sufficient detail has been obtained.
Grounded Theory Interviewing – An iterative approach where emerging theme… #
Related terms: Inductive interviewing, Theory‑building inquiry. Explanation: The investigator adapts the interview guide in real time based on patterns observed. Example: If multiple crew members mention “communication fatigue,” the interviewer explores that concept further in later interviews. Practical application: Generates rich, theory‑driven insights into systemic safety issues. Challenges: Requires flexibility, may complicate standardisation, and can be time‑intensive.
Hypothetical Scenario Questioning – Presenting a “what‑if” situation to g… #
Related terms: Scenario‑based probing, Counterfactual questioning. Explanation: Asks the interviewee to imagine an alternate set of circumstances and describe their response. Example: “If the primary navigation system had failed at 02:30, What backup procedures would you have initiated?”
Practical application #
Reveals procedural knowledge and contingency planning. Challenges: May lead to speculative answers that do not reflect actual behaviour.
Ice‑Breaker Question – A non‑technical, low‑stakes question used at the s… #
Related terms: Warm‑up query, Rapport starter. Explanation: Helps establish a comfortable atmosphere before delving into critical topics. Example: “How was your flight to the airport today?”
Practical application #
Particularly effective when interviewing personnel who are unfamiliar with investigative processes. Challenges: Must transition smoothly to substantive topics; over‑use can waste valuable interview time.
Implicit Bias Awareness – The conscious effort to recognise and mitigate… #
Related terms: Unconscious bias mitigation, Cognitive neutrality. Explanation: Interviewers reflect on their own preconceptions about crew, aircraft type, or organisational culture. Example: Avoiding assumptions such as “pilots always follow SOPs” when formulating questions. Practical application: Enhances objectivity and fairness of the interview process. Challenges: Requires ongoing self‑assessment and training; biases can be subtle and pervasive.
Informal Interviewing – A less structured, conversational approach that a… #
Related terms: Unstructured interview, Narrative interview. Explanation: The interviewer acts as a facilitator, encouraging the interviewee to recount events in their own words. Example: Allowing a maintenance technician to describe a fault‑finding process without a rigid checklist. Practical application: Can surface unexpected insights and foster openness. Challenges: May result in incomplete coverage of required topics; documentation can be more demanding.
Jargon Clarification – The practice of asking interviewees to explain spe… #
Related terms: Terminology unpacking, Lexical probing. Explanation: Ensures that investigators correctly interpret technical language. Example: “When you say ‘N1 surge,’ can you describe the exact symptom you observed?”
Practical application #
Prevents misinterpretation of critical data, especially when cross‑checking with non‑technical evidence. Challenges: Interviewees may assume the investigator already understands the jargon, leading to ambiguous answers.
Key Incident Question (KIQ) – A targeted question that focuses on the piv… #
Related terms: Critical event query, Moment‑of‑truth question. Explanation: Zeroes in on the exact point where safety was compromised. Example: “What was the first indication that the aircraft was deviating from the glide path?”
Practical application #
Helps isolate the causal chain and identify immediate triggers. Challenges: Requires precise timing and may be emotionally charged for the interviewee.
Lead‑Lag Questioning – A comparative technique that asks about actions ta… #
Related terms: Pre‑post probing, Temporal sequencing. Explanation: Provides a chronological framework to assess preparation and response. Example: “What checks did you perform before take‑off, and what actions followed the alarm at 02:12?”
Practical application #
Highlights procedural compliance and reaction effectiveness. Challenges: Interviewees may lose track of timing; careful cueing is needed.
Logical Sequencing – Organising interview questions in a progressive orde… #
Related terms: Chronological interviewing, Structured flow. Explanation: Starts with pre‑flight activities, moves through flight phases, and concludes with post‑flight actions. Example: “Begin with the pre‑flight briefing, then describe the take‑off sequence, followed by the approach.”
Practical application #
Facilitates coherent narrative construction and easier cross‑referencing with data. Challenges: Rigid sequencing can hinder exploration of unexpected topics that arise spontaneously.
Meta‑Cognitive Prompting – Encouraging interviewees to reflect on their o… #
Related terms: Self‑reflection questioning, Cognitive debrief. Explanation: Asks the interviewee to articulate why they made certain decisions. Example: “What were you thinking when you decided to abort the landing?”
Practical application #
Reveals decision‑making heuristics and potential cognitive errors. Challenges: May be difficult for interviewees under stress to articulate internal reasoning.
Neutral Wording – Using language that avoids leading or suggestive phrasi… #
Related terms: Non‑leading questioning, Impartial phrasing. Explanation: Phrases like “Did you notice any abnormal sounds?” Instead of “Did you hear the unusual noise that we think was the engine failure?”
Practical application #
Maintains the integrity of the data collected. Challenges: Requires vigilance; inadvertent bias can creep into even well‑intentioned questions.
Open‑Ended Question – A question that invites expansive answers, allowing… #
Related terms: Exploratory query, Narrative prompt. Explanation: Begins with “what,” “how,” or “describe,” and encourages elaboration. Example: “Describe the sequence of events from the moment you entered the cockpit.”
Practical application #
Generates rich qualitative data and uncovers unforeseen factors. Challenges: Can lead to digressions; requires skillful steering to keep relevance.
Panel Interviewing – Conducting the interview with multiple investigators… #
Related terms: Multi‑investigator interview, Collaborative debrief. Explanation: Allows simultaneous note‑taking, cross‑checking, and expertise sharing. Example: A safety analyst, a human‑factors specialist, and a technical engineer all ask questions of a pilot. Practical application: Enhances depth of inquiry and reduces individual bias. Challenges: May intimidate the interviewee; coordination among panel members is essential.
Qualitative Coding Prompt – Asking interviewees to categorise their own s… #
Related terms: Thematic tagging, Self‑coding interview. Explanation: The interviewee identifies whether a response relates to “procedural error,” “equipment failure,” or “human factors.”
Example #
“Would you say the primary issue was a procedural lapse or a technical malfunction?”
Practical application #
Streamlines later analysis and helps triangulate data. Challenges: Requires interviewees to understand coding categories; risk of oversimplification.
Recall‑Enhancement Technique – Methods such as timeline reconstruction, v… #
Related terms: Memory scaffolding, Cognitive aids. Explanation: Providing a cockpit diagram or a flight‑strip to prompt recollection. Example: “Point to the instrument panel where the warning appeared.”
Practical application #
Increases accuracy of technical details. Challenges: May unintentionally cue false memories if not carefully managed.
Reflective Summarisation – The interviewer restates the interviewee’s key… #
Related terms: Paraphrasing, Confirmation loop. Explanation: “So, you observed a sudden drop in airspeed at 02:10, Correct?”
Practical application #
Prevents misinterpretation and ensures that the record reflects the interviewee’s intent. Challenges: Must be concise; over‑use can disrupt flow.
Scenario‑Based Interviewing – Presenting a realistic operational scenario… #
Related terms: Case study probing, Situational simulation. Explanation: Mirrors real‑world events to elicit authentic responses. Example: “Imagine you are approaching the runway in low visibility; what steps would you take?”
Practical application #
Assesses procedural knowledge and situational awareness. Challenges: Distinguishing between hypothetical and actual behaviour can be difficult.
Temporal Anchoring – Using known time markers to help interviewees situat… #
Related terms: Time‑reference probing, Chronological cueing. Explanation: Linking an event to a well‑remembered occurrence, such as “right after the ATC clearance.”
Example #
“Did the alarm sound before or after the altitude change at 03:05?”
Practical application #
Improves timeline precision. Challenges: Relies on interviewee’s ability to recall exact timings; may be affected by clock discrepancies.
Unstructured Interview – A flexible, conversation‑driven approach with mi… #
Related terms: Informal interview, Free‑form dialogue. Explanation: The interviewer follows the interviewee’s lead, allowing topics to emerge organically. Example: Allowing a ground crew member to narrate the entire shift without interruption. Practical application: Captures unexpected insights and personal perspectives. Challenges: Risk of incomplete coverage of essential safety aspects; requires diligent note‑taking.
Validation Question – A question designed to verify previously obtained i… #
Related terms: Cross‑check query, Consistency probe. Explanation: “Your logbook notes a fuel imbalance; does the fuel receipt record reflect the same discrepancy?”
Practical application #
Strengthens evidentiary reliability. Challenges: May be perceived as confrontational; must be phrased diplomatically.
Witness Credibility Assessment – Evaluating the reliability of an intervi… #
Related terms: Source reliability, Trustworthiness rating. Explanation: Involves noting contradictions, corroborations, and the interviewee’s position. Example: Noting that a senior pilot’s account aligns with flight‑data recorder data, enhancing credibility. Practical application: Guides weighting of statements in safety analysis. Challenges: Subjectivity can influence assessment; requires objective criteria.
Yield‑Focused Questioning – Prioritising questions that directly contribu… #
Related terms: Goal‑oriented probing, Impact‑driven inquiry. Explanation: Filters out extraneous detail in favour of actionable information. Example: “What procedural step, if any, was omitted that could have prevented the incident?”
Practical application #
Streamlines investigation timelines and supports recommendation drafting. Challenges: May overlook peripheral data that later proves relevant; balance is needed.
Zero‑Bias Interview Protocol – A standardized set of guidelines aiming to… #
Related terms: Bias‑free interviewing, Neutral protocol. Explanation: Includes neutral language, balanced question order, and blind review of responses. Example: Using a scripted set of open‑ended questions that are identical for all interviewees. Practical application: Enhances fairness and comparability across multiple interviews. Challenges: Rigid adherence may limit adaptability to unique circumstances; ongoing training is essential.